Administration under Sher Shah Sur
In the process evolution of the Mughal administrative machinery, Sur rule (1540-1555 A.D) was significant. Sher Shah took interest to rule generally, his experiment in the formation of a bureaucracy under a cerilralised despotism had taken place. We have little information about the working of central administration under Sher Shah. But he was an autocrat and kept everything under his direct control and supervision. Sher Shah Sur introduced an order and through provincial administrative machinery as well central administration, made historical preparation for Akbar’s government, which followed nearly same pattern.
The Administration of Sher Shah Sur’s Mamlakat
Central Authority
Sher Shah assumed the title of Sultan-i-Adil, Shah and Kholifa-al Zaman. The former sultans of Delhi like Iltutmish and Muhammad bin Taghluq had assumed the title of Sultan-i-Adil. (P. 21,134 H. Nelson)
Sher Shah also adopted the title of “Shah” under the impact of Persian influence which had permeated the sultanate of Delhi. (P. 265 Sher Shah Sur)
Sher Shah also adopted the title of “Shah” under the impact of Persian influence which had permeated the sultanate of Delhi. (P. 265 Sher Shah Sur)
Sher Shah Bureaucracy
Commensurate with his royal titles and idea of government, Sher Shah created bureaucracy which was filled by his umara who had received adequate training from him for their onerous duties. He trained up the nobility and raised them to high position, appointing each of them magistrate under his authority. (P. 274 Sher Shah Sur) The hierarchy of Sher Shah Sur’s bureaucracy appears to be in the following order:
Wazir
The Wazirs held the charge of all civil and military affairs and took an active part in the field. The wazir bore the title of Amir-al- Umara. Another hand, the Hajjabdar was also served under Sher Shah and he performed the duties of Mir Tuzuk. (Tarikhi Daud, p.142). His structure was equivalent to the wazir, he also introduced visitors to the king.
Sadr or Sodr-i-Jahan
Sadr or Sodr-i-jahan was incharge of the religious affairs and charitable endoursents. He was to prepare the draft tarmans for the grant of pargana to aima and mukhodim and present that to Sher Shah. He was also “to keep the management of treasure on his hands. (P. 275 Sher Shah Sur)
Dabir-i- Dault, Kuthiwala, and Khasa Khail
Dabir-i- Dault was the head of the Diwan-i-Irsha. All the correspondence, formal or confidential, between the sovereign and the rulers of other states or his own tributaries and officials passed through his department. The kothiwala held the charge of the royal private funds, manufactories, armoury, weighing of gold, gems and other valuable articles. And, the Khasa Khail was the affa in chief of the sultan’s own Cavalry regiments.
Dabir-i- Dault, Kuthiwala, and Khasa Khail
Dabir-i- Dault was the head of the Diwan-i-Irsha. All the correspondence, formal or confidential, between the sovereign and the rulers of other states or his own tributaries and officials passed through his department. The kothiwala held the charge of the royal private funds, manufactories, armoury, weighing of gold, gems and other valuable articles. And, the Khasa Khail was the affa in chief of the sultan’s own Cavalry regiments.
Darogha-I Dak Chauki
The Darogha-I Dak Chauki was the head of the dak chauki and the espionage system. A large number of news writers and news carriers were placed under him in order to supply Sher Shah Sur with the important news of the distant parts of his Mamlakat and to carry the royal dak as well. (P. 276, Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah is the great ruler of Afghan history. He showed in every field what the Afghans might have achieved if more than one at a time had possessed the capacity to rule and to organize as well as to fight and raid. In the avert, Sher Shah’s Afghan empire collapsed almost as quickly as it arose. For eight years his son Islam Shah struggled against increasing opposition, and the empire then dissolved into warring factions. Humayun was reappeared in India. With the help of the Persian Shah Ismail, Humayun recovered Kandahar from his brother Kamran, and Kabul a little later. Then Humayun re-occupied Delhi and Agra, but within six months he died. At this time the Mughal position was as insecure as Babar’s had been on his occupation of Agra thirty years before. Several opposing forces were in being; there was the rivalry of different aristocratic groups separated only partially by differences of class and race. The field was thus an open one and there was unusual scope for the exercise of leadership. The leadership appeared at the precise moment in the Mughal camp, when Akbar son of Humayun was placed for crown. (P. 28, 29 A History of India)
It was the period that the Mughal Empire became a political fact over half of India and a factor in the life of India. Akbar had placed the Rajput opposition to allow them certain high posts in his court. Thus in effect the Rajputs became partners in the Empire and near whole of the Hindu community came to accept the Mughal government. Akbar’s sanother achievement was the organization of a bureaucratic administration and an imperial service. Akbar had divided the Empire into twelve subahs or provinces, which later grew to eighteen provinces, were subdivided into surkars, and further into pargans.
The basic objective of the Mughal administrative setup was to exercise control over the different part of the empire. From the Subah downwards there were two sets of officers, the magisterial and the revenue. The armed forces were responsible for law and order, while the latter collected revenue and were responsible for the land assessment. The Divan or revenue officer …… his collection to Delhi which in turn supplied the Subodar with cash for his followers. (P. 42 A History of India)
The government appeared to the people in the countryside mainly as a revenue collecting agency. The cultivated land was recorded in every field, “the government thus had a network of authority spread, as it were, over the surface of Indo-Muslim society, a wiring system of political electricity”. (P. 43 A History of India)
The Mughal nobility was an official aristocracy which was hereditary as a class but not as individuals, which was landholding but not feudal. This class was spread over the country to worse the administrative machine. As mentioned above, the cultivated land was recorded.
The revenue dues were collected directly by government officers called arils or by deputies such as the mansobdars, jagirdars, or local chiefs. There was no elaborate system of judicial courts, governments courts only existed at the district headquarters. Criminal cases in the towns were dealt with by government appointed Muslim Qazis or law officers administering the Muslim code. Order was maintained in the villages largely by the village elders themselves. By the end of Akbar’s reign, establishment of elaborate offices were assigned.
Sher Shah is the great ruler of Afghan history. He showed in every field what the Afghans might have achieved if more than one at a time had possessed the capacity to rule and to organize as well as to fight and raid. In the avert, Sher Shah’s Afghan empire collapsed almost as quickly as it arose. For eight years his son Islam Shah struggled against increasing opposition, and the empire then dissolved into warring factions. Humayun was reappeared in India. With the help of the Persian Shah Ismail, Humayun recovered Kandahar from his brother Kamran, and Kabul a little later. Then Humayun re-occupied Delhi and Agra, but within six months he died. At this time the Mughal position was as insecure as Babar’s had been on his occupation of Agra thirty years before. Several opposing forces were in being; there was the rivalry of different aristocratic groups separated only partially by differences of class and race. The field was thus an open one and there was unusual scope for the exercise of leadership. The leadership appeared at the precise moment in the Mughal camp, when Akbar son of Humayun was placed for crown. (P. 28, 29 A History of India)
It was the period that the Mughal Empire became a political fact over half of India and a factor in the life of India. Akbar had placed the Rajput opposition to allow them certain high posts in his court. Thus in effect the Rajputs became partners in the Empire and near whole of the Hindu community came to accept the Mughal government. Akbar’s sanother achievement was the organization of a bureaucratic administration and an imperial service. Akbar had divided the Empire into twelve subahs or provinces, which later grew to eighteen provinces, were subdivided into surkars, and further into pargans.
The basic objective of the Mughal administrative setup was to exercise control over the different part of the empire. From the Subah downwards there were two sets of officers, the magisterial and the revenue. The armed forces were responsible for law and order, while the latter collected revenue and were responsible for the land assessment. The Divan or revenue officer …… his collection to Delhi which in turn supplied the Subodar with cash for his followers. (P. 42 A History of India)
The government appeared to the people in the countryside mainly as a revenue collecting agency. The cultivated land was recorded in every field, “the government thus had a network of authority spread, as it were, over the surface of Indo-Muslim society, a wiring system of political electricity”. (P. 43 A History of India)
The Mughal nobility was an official aristocracy which was hereditary as a class but not as individuals, which was landholding but not feudal. This class was spread over the country to worse the administrative machine. As mentioned above, the cultivated land was recorded.
The revenue dues were collected directly by government officers called arils or by deputies such as the mansobdars, jagirdars, or local chiefs. There was no elaborate system of judicial courts, governments courts only existed at the district headquarters. Criminal cases in the towns were dealt with by government appointed Muslim Qazis or law officers administering the Muslim code. Order was maintained in the villages largely by the village elders themselves. By the end of Akbar’s reign, establishment of elaborate offices were assigned.
Central Administration
The Emperor:
The ancient Indian traditions had always supported a strong ruler. The Muslim jurists and writers also held the same view. With such popular perception of the ruler. It is obvious that all officers in Mughal administration owed their position and power to the Emperor. Their appointment, promotion, demotion and termination were subject to the ruler’s personal preference and …..
“The Mughal Empire was the jure as well as the facto an independent state”. (P. 172 I.H. Qurishi). The emperor was vested supreme political authority and his could be challenged or questiontioned only through rebellion. The emperor, padshah, was recognized as caliph. If emperor was guilty in sinful activities, his action could be questioned in a court of law. (P.172 I.H. Qurishi) But, there were several communities different from eachotheras well regiously. In addition, there were heterodous group amonung Muslim as well.
The Mughal emperor realized the necessity of regulating their lives in accordance with public needs as well for the …. Of his rule. In order to redress the grievances of the subject, they gave frequent public audience. Akbar appeared at sharoka and gave darshan to his people. Aurangzeb discontinued this practice and held a full Derbar in the Diwani-ikhas O’ am where appointments and grants were made. This practice was continued also into the reign of later Mughals.
Besides this, the Mughal Emperors enjoyed immense power. He was the head of administration both civil and military. At the same time, he was also the commander of the state forces, the fountain of the justice and the chief legislature. The Emperor was assisted by a council of various ministers who could advice but their advice was not binding on the Emperor. In the code of Akbar, there was elaborate difference, he formulate his own theory to rule over Hindustan.
According to Abu-l-Fadl, “Silly and shortsighted men can’t distinguish a true king from a selfish ruler”. (Abu-l-Fadl, P. 58) His duty is to remove oppression and provide everything which to good. The emperor was providing security, health, justice, polite manners, faithfulness, truth etc.
Therefore, the emperor had vested superior authority in the Mughal Empire. It rebellions were raised, on the order of king it had suppressed and law and order was establish. “The organization of the Mughal central government was essentially on the same lines as that of the sultanate. The principal officers of the central government having ranks similar to the ministers were four: (1) Diwan, (2) Mir Bakhsi, (3) Mir Samon, and (4) Sadr”. (P. 580, S.M Ikram)
“The Mughal Empire was the jure as well as the facto an independent state”. (P. 172 I.H. Qurishi). The emperor was vested supreme political authority and his could be challenged or questiontioned only through rebellion. The emperor, padshah, was recognized as caliph. If emperor was guilty in sinful activities, his action could be questioned in a court of law. (P.172 I.H. Qurishi) But, there were several communities different from eachotheras well regiously. In addition, there were heterodous group amonung Muslim as well.
The Mughal emperor realized the necessity of regulating their lives in accordance with public needs as well for the …. Of his rule. In order to redress the grievances of the subject, they gave frequent public audience. Akbar appeared at sharoka and gave darshan to his people. Aurangzeb discontinued this practice and held a full Derbar in the Diwani-ikhas O’ am where appointments and grants were made. This practice was continued also into the reign of later Mughals.
Besides this, the Mughal Emperors enjoyed immense power. He was the head of administration both civil and military. At the same time, he was also the commander of the state forces, the fountain of the justice and the chief legislature. The Emperor was assisted by a council of various ministers who could advice but their advice was not binding on the Emperor. In the code of Akbar, there was elaborate difference, he formulate his own theory to rule over Hindustan.
According to Abu-l-Fadl, “Silly and shortsighted men can’t distinguish a true king from a selfish ruler”. (Abu-l-Fadl, P. 58) His duty is to remove oppression and provide everything which to good. The emperor was providing security, health, justice, polite manners, faithfulness, truth etc.
Therefore, the emperor had vested superior authority in the Mughal Empire. It rebellions were raised, on the order of king it had suppressed and law and order was establish. “The organization of the Mughal central government was essentially on the same lines as that of the sultanate. The principal officers of the central government having ranks similar to the ministers were four: (1) Diwan, (2) Mir Bakhsi, (3) Mir Samon, and (4) Sadr”. (P. 580, S.M Ikram)
Wakil and Wazir:
The institution of wizarat can be traced …. To Abbasid Caliphs. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the wazir enjoyed both civil and military powers but under Bulban his power were reduced. As for Sher Shah, this office remained almost in obeyence under the Afghan. The position of wazir revived under the early Mughals. Babur’s wazir, Nizamudin Muhammad khalifa enjoyed both civil and military powers. Humayun’s wazir Hindu Beg also virtually enjoyed great powers.
Wizarat was considered as a first dignity, was mainly concerned with the revenue and financial administration. But, the work of other departments also came under his supervision due to all matters involving expenditure. Imperial orders were first recorded in his office before being issued. Although, the provincial governors, district faujdars, and leaders of expedition come to him for instructions. Each of earning department had under his direct control. (P. 580, S.M Ikram)
The wazir also called diwan-i-kul or diwan-i-a’la, was the head of the fiscal administration of the empire. He had to be strict with the highest officers in their financial dealing with the state. If the king had desired orderly fiscal affairs, he had to gave the wazir support, the wazir, had to be tactful in his dealings with the officials. He was not removed until …… guilty in high treason based on evidence. When the wazir was in-difficulty to manage the affairs, another expert was associated with him with the consort of the Emperor. The wazir had extensive power; he was expected to send financial statement to the wakil, was not his subordinate. He was consulted by the monarch in all important matters. in addition, he was consulted in all important appointments; though, all fiscal posts were under his patronage. (P. 180, I.H Qureshi)
The period of Bairam khan’s regency (1556-1560) saw the rise of the wakil-wazir with unlimited powers under Bairam khan. Akbar took away the financial powers at the wakil and entrusted it into the hands of the diwan kul (financial minister). Separation of finance reduced wakil’s power. However, the wakil continued to enjoy the highest place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy.
Moreover, at the centre the wazir was assisted by three high officials; they had direct access to the monarch and were present in the diwan-i-am as well as in the diwan-i-khas. These officials were called the diwan-i-khalisah, the diwan-i-ton, and the Mastavti during Akbar reign. (P. 180, 181 I.H Qureshi)
Mir Bakhshi:
The mir’arz of Delhi Sultanate changed its nomenclature to mir bakhshi under the Mughals. According to Abu l Fadl, the subordinate to the wakil the mir bakhshi is the most important. He was on at the most powerful officials of the state under the Mughals. His subordination to the wakil was only nominal. “The word bakhshi probably comes from the Sanskrit word bhik-shu, a word used for the Buddhist monks who had no worldly belonging and lived upon charity”. (P. 181 I.H Qureshi)
He was himself a highly placed mansabdar and was responsible for the smooth working of the mansabdari system. For new appointments, the candidates had to pass the bakhshi’s scrutiny. Though the Mir Bakhshi was the minister in-charge of the military establishment. (P. 182 I.H Qureshi) He had power to enforce the royal regulation in the army.
In addition, the Mir Bakhshi performed duties which were the responsibilities of the Arid-i-Mumalik during the earlier period. Some foreign travelers have called him the lieutenant-General. Regarding salaries, on the basis of his verification, the amount of the salary was certified. Mir Bakhshi placed all matters pertaining to the military department before the Emperor. He accompanied the Emperor on tours, pleasures trips, hunting expeditions, battle field etc. his duty was to check whether proper places were allotted to the ranks at the court. He was assisted by other bakhshi’s at central level.
Diwan:
The chief diwan was made responsible for revenue and finances. Primary duty was to supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts. He inspected all transactions and payments in all departments.
“The most famous diwan under Akbar was Raja Todar Mal, who far a time acted as the chief minister of the realm, but the contribution of Khwajah Mansur and Mir Fathullah Shirazi to the building up at Akbar’s revenue administration was perhaps equally great. Under Jahangir, …. Timad al- Daulah, the father of Nur Jahan, who was a Diwan even before the king’s marriage with his daughter, remained the chief wazir and diwan till his death. He was succeeded by his son Asaf khan, who became the wakil just before the death of Jahangir.
…. In the next reign, Asat khan maintained his position until his death, but his successors were selected on the basis of their scholarship and technical efficiency. Allami Afdal khan remained Shah Jahan’s Diwan for ten years.” (P. 581, S.M Ikram)
The diwan was also exercised general supervision over the administration as well, had under him two principal officers, and called Diwan-i Tan and Diwan-I khalisah. Who were in-charge of salaries and state lands. In the reign of Shah Jahan, Diwan-i khalisah were Hindus and seven heads of Diwan-i Tan were also belonged to the same community. (P. 581, S.M Ikram)
Although, his seal and signatures were necessary for the validation of all official papers involving revenue. The entire revenue collection was under his charge, no fresh order of appointment or promotion could be affected without his seal. The Diwan was bind to submit the report on state finance daily.
Mir Saman:
The Mir Somen, later called Khan-i Saman, was minister for suoolies and industries. He was responsible for the supply of requirements of the imperial establishment. It was became very important and influencial department under the later Mughal.
Moreover, the mir saman was the officer in-charge of the royal karkhanas. He was directly under the Emperor but for section of money and auditing of account he was to contact the diwan. Under the mir saman there were several officers, including the diwan-i buyutat and tahvildar (cash keeper).
Wizarat was considered as a first dignity, was mainly concerned with the revenue and financial administration. But, the work of other departments also came under his supervision due to all matters involving expenditure. Imperial orders were first recorded in his office before being issued. Although, the provincial governors, district faujdars, and leaders of expedition come to him for instructions. Each of earning department had under his direct control. (P. 580, S.M Ikram)
The wazir also called diwan-i-kul or diwan-i-a’la, was the head of the fiscal administration of the empire. He had to be strict with the highest officers in their financial dealing with the state. If the king had desired orderly fiscal affairs, he had to gave the wazir support, the wazir, had to be tactful in his dealings with the officials. He was not removed until …… guilty in high treason based on evidence. When the wazir was in-difficulty to manage the affairs, another expert was associated with him with the consort of the Emperor. The wazir had extensive power; he was expected to send financial statement to the wakil, was not his subordinate. He was consulted by the monarch in all important matters. in addition, he was consulted in all important appointments; though, all fiscal posts were under his patronage. (P. 180, I.H Qureshi)
The period of Bairam khan’s regency (1556-1560) saw the rise of the wakil-wazir with unlimited powers under Bairam khan. Akbar took away the financial powers at the wakil and entrusted it into the hands of the diwan kul (financial minister). Separation of finance reduced wakil’s power. However, the wakil continued to enjoy the highest place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy.
Moreover, at the centre the wazir was assisted by three high officials; they had direct access to the monarch and were present in the diwan-i-am as well as in the diwan-i-khas. These officials were called the diwan-i-khalisah, the diwan-i-ton, and the Mastavti during Akbar reign. (P. 180, 181 I.H Qureshi)
Mir Bakhshi:
The mir’arz of Delhi Sultanate changed its nomenclature to mir bakhshi under the Mughals. According to Abu l Fadl, the subordinate to the wakil the mir bakhshi is the most important. He was on at the most powerful officials of the state under the Mughals. His subordination to the wakil was only nominal. “The word bakhshi probably comes from the Sanskrit word bhik-shu, a word used for the Buddhist monks who had no worldly belonging and lived upon charity”. (P. 181 I.H Qureshi)
He was himself a highly placed mansabdar and was responsible for the smooth working of the mansabdari system. For new appointments, the candidates had to pass the bakhshi’s scrutiny. Though the Mir Bakhshi was the minister in-charge of the military establishment. (P. 182 I.H Qureshi) He had power to enforce the royal regulation in the army.
In addition, the Mir Bakhshi performed duties which were the responsibilities of the Arid-i-Mumalik during the earlier period. Some foreign travelers have called him the lieutenant-General. Regarding salaries, on the basis of his verification, the amount of the salary was certified. Mir Bakhshi placed all matters pertaining to the military department before the Emperor. He accompanied the Emperor on tours, pleasures trips, hunting expeditions, battle field etc. his duty was to check whether proper places were allotted to the ranks at the court. He was assisted by other bakhshi’s at central level.
Diwan:
The chief diwan was made responsible for revenue and finances. Primary duty was to supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts. He inspected all transactions and payments in all departments.
“The most famous diwan under Akbar was Raja Todar Mal, who far a time acted as the chief minister of the realm, but the contribution of Khwajah Mansur and Mir Fathullah Shirazi to the building up at Akbar’s revenue administration was perhaps equally great. Under Jahangir, …. Timad al- Daulah, the father of Nur Jahan, who was a Diwan even before the king’s marriage with his daughter, remained the chief wazir and diwan till his death. He was succeeded by his son Asaf khan, who became the wakil just before the death of Jahangir.
…. In the next reign, Asat khan maintained his position until his death, but his successors were selected on the basis of their scholarship and technical efficiency. Allami Afdal khan remained Shah Jahan’s Diwan for ten years.” (P. 581, S.M Ikram)
The diwan was also exercised general supervision over the administration as well, had under him two principal officers, and called Diwan-i Tan and Diwan-I khalisah. Who were in-charge of salaries and state lands. In the reign of Shah Jahan, Diwan-i khalisah were Hindus and seven heads of Diwan-i Tan were also belonged to the same community. (P. 581, S.M Ikram)
Although, his seal and signatures were necessary for the validation of all official papers involving revenue. The entire revenue collection was under his charge, no fresh order of appointment or promotion could be affected without his seal. The Diwan was bind to submit the report on state finance daily.
Mir Saman:
The Mir Somen, later called Khan-i Saman, was minister for suoolies and industries. He was responsible for the supply of requirements of the imperial establishment. It was became very important and influencial department under the later Mughal.
Moreover, the mir saman was the officer in-charge of the royal karkhanas. He was directly under the Emperor but for section of money and auditing of account he was to contact the diwan. Under the mir saman there were several officers, including the diwan-i buyutat and tahvildar (cash keeper).
Sudr-us Sudur:
In the earlier period, sadr was the head of the religious department, charities and endowrnments. (P. 580, S.M Ikram)
On the other hand, he was the head of judicial department, he supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis. Before Shah Jahan’s reign, the post of the chief qazi and sadr-us sudur were combined and the same person held the charge of both department.
However, under Aurangzeb it got separation and the sadr was supervised assignment of allowances and looked after the charity grants. Also, he looked towards whether the grants were given to the right person and utilized property.
On the other hand, he was the head of judicial department, he supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis. Before Shah Jahan’s reign, the post of the chief qazi and sadr-us sudur were combined and the same person held the charge of both department.
However, under Aurangzeb it got separation and the sadr was supervised assignment of allowances and looked after the charity grants. Also, he looked towards whether the grants were given to the right person and utilized property.
Qazi-ul Quzzat:
The Qazi-ul-Quzzat was the chief judicial functionary in the state. He was also known as Qazi. His principal duty was to administer the Shariat law both in civil and criminal cases. He was assisted by two officials the Mufti and the Mir’Adl.
Moreover, he looked into the appointment of the Qazis in the Suba, Sarkar, Pargana and town level. There was also separate Qazi for army.
Under his supervision, the mufti expounded the law and the Qazi delivered the verdict and the Mir’Adl was to execute the order of the court. The Muhtasibs (censor of public morals) was to ensure the general observance of the rulers of morality. His job was vto keep in check forbidden practices- wine drinking, use of bhang and other intoxicants, gambling etc. In addition, he also performed some other duties- examining weights and measuring, enforcing fair prices etc.
Provincial Administration
Provincial Administration was improved by Akbar. In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into twelve Subas, later six were added in it. Each Suba was divided into Porganas and Mahala. The boundaries of the provincial units were fixed the provincial administration was strengthening, and each province had provided a numbers of officials to serve there. “By the introduction of an all-India cadre of Mansabdars, liable to be transferred anywhere at the behest of the central government, and by introduction of other checks, the control of the centre over provinces was made more effective.”
Provincial Governor:
The Governor of provinces was directly appointed by the Emperor. It was a principal officer of province, who was called Sipah-salar under Akbar and Nazim under his successors, but was popularly known as Subahdar and later only as Subah. Usually the tenure of a Subadar was around three years. Amoung the duties of the Subadar, the most important one were to look after the welfare of the people and the army. He was responsible for the general law and order in the province. Besides this, his duty was also to encourage agriculture, trade and commerce.
Faujdar and Kotwal:
The Faujdar and the Kotwal were the two other important officials. Faujdar was the administrative head of the Sarkar. He had appointed by the Emperor. But it was under the supervision and guidance of the governor. (P. 585, S.M Ikram) He was not only appointed at the sarkar level, but sometimes with in a sarkar a number of Faujdars existed. His primary duty was to safeguard the life and property of the resident of the area under his jurisdiction. Moreover, he was to ensure passage to traders within his jurisdiction. In special circumstances, he was to help the amalguzar in matter of revenue collection.
Besides that, another officer was Kotwal. Basically, he was not provincial officer, but was appointed by the central government in the province capitals and other important cities. He performed a number of executive and ministerial duties. “The appropriate person for Kotwal office should be vigorous, experienced, active, deliberate, patient, astute, and humane. Through his watchfulness and night patrolling the citizens should enjoy the response of security, and the evil-disposed lie in the slough of non-existence.” (P.573 Ibn I Fadl). The kotwal had kept record of the houses, and frequented roads etc.
Moreover, he looked into the appointment of the Qazis in the Suba, Sarkar, Pargana and town level. There was also separate Qazi for army.
Under his supervision, the mufti expounded the law and the Qazi delivered the verdict and the Mir’Adl was to execute the order of the court. The Muhtasibs (censor of public morals) was to ensure the general observance of the rulers of morality. His job was vto keep in check forbidden practices- wine drinking, use of bhang and other intoxicants, gambling etc. In addition, he also performed some other duties- examining weights and measuring, enforcing fair prices etc.
Provincial Administration
Provincial Administration was improved by Akbar. In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into twelve Subas, later six were added in it. Each Suba was divided into Porganas and Mahala. The boundaries of the provincial units were fixed the provincial administration was strengthening, and each province had provided a numbers of officials to serve there. “By the introduction of an all-India cadre of Mansabdars, liable to be transferred anywhere at the behest of the central government, and by introduction of other checks, the control of the centre over provinces was made more effective.”
Provincial Governor:
The Governor of provinces was directly appointed by the Emperor. It was a principal officer of province, who was called Sipah-salar under Akbar and Nazim under his successors, but was popularly known as Subahdar and later only as Subah. Usually the tenure of a Subadar was around three years. Amoung the duties of the Subadar, the most important one were to look after the welfare of the people and the army. He was responsible for the general law and order in the province. Besides this, his duty was also to encourage agriculture, trade and commerce.
Faujdar and Kotwal:
The Faujdar and the Kotwal were the two other important officials. Faujdar was the administrative head of the Sarkar. He had appointed by the Emperor. But it was under the supervision and guidance of the governor. (P. 585, S.M Ikram) He was not only appointed at the sarkar level, but sometimes with in a sarkar a number of Faujdars existed. His primary duty was to safeguard the life and property of the resident of the area under his jurisdiction. Moreover, he was to ensure passage to traders within his jurisdiction. In special circumstances, he was to help the amalguzar in matter of revenue collection.
Besides that, another officer was Kotwal. Basically, he was not provincial officer, but was appointed by the central government in the province capitals and other important cities. He performed a number of executive and ministerial duties. “The appropriate person for Kotwal office should be vigorous, experienced, active, deliberate, patient, astute, and humane. Through his watchfulness and night patrolling the citizens should enjoy the response of security, and the evil-disposed lie in the slough of non-existence.” (P.573 Ibn I Fadl). The kotwal had kept record of the houses, and frequented roads etc.
sher shah's administration
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